TOPIC I
AN INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLINGUISTICS:
WHAT DO LANGUAGE USERS NOW?
- A. The domain of Psycholinguistics Inquiry
- Comprehension : how people understand spoken and written language.
- Speech production : how people product language.
- Acquisition : how people learning language. Focus on how children acquire a first language ( developed psycholinguistics)
- B. Language
- C. What Speakers And Listeners Know: A Brief Survey of Linguistics.
- The sounds of the message must be isolated and recognized.
- The world must be identified and associated with their meaning.
- The grammatical structure of the message must be analyzed sufficiently to determine the roles played by each word.
- The result interpretation on the message must be evaluated in light of past experience and the current of context.
- Phonetics and phonology are concerned with the study of speech sound.
- Morphology is the study of word structures, especially the relationship between related word ( such as dog and dogs) and the information of word based on rules ( such as plural information )
- Semantic deals with the meaning of words and sentences. Where syntax is concerned with the formal structure of sentence, semantics deals with the actual meaning of sentences.
- Pragmatics is concerned with the role of context in the interpretations of meaning.
- D. Language Diversity And language Universal.
A psycholinguistics may be based on cognitive and perceptual factors, as well as linguistic:
- Oral and signed language. Language is signed or spoken. Oral language are numerous, but the manage signed languages in the world all divers crucially in their phonology.
- Written language. Very widely in their characteristics, but some
broad categories of writing system can be described. The minimal unit or
building block of any written system is the grapheme.
- E. The Evolution Of Psycholinguistics Inquiry
- F. The Acquisitions Of Language By Children
- The first stage or phonological acquisitions
- The two word stage
- The third state or syntactic
TOPIC II
THE BIOLOGICAL BASES OF HUMAN
COMMUNICATIVE BEHAVIOR
- A. Language And The Brain : A historical Perspective
Rich in controversial topics, this text integrates subjects such as paleontology, speech, the structure of the brain, Eve, and the rather odd way in which humans reproduce. Written as a narrative, this excellent learning tool relates modern behavior to the past environments, stresses, and challenges still evident in the modern human world.
For anyone interested in the biological bases of human behavior; psychology; or anthropology.
- B. Early Neurolinguistic Observations
- The ancient Greeks offered little insight in their speculation, despite their contribution in many other areas of inguiry. For example Aris Totle (384-322)
- Hippocratic scholars (467-370) correctly observed that brain injury often produced contra lateral (opposite-sided) paresis (semi paralysis) .
- Herophilus and Galen, in the second century , developed the Ventricle or Cell Theory of brain function, which localized brain activity to its cavities, the ventricles, where cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) production takes places.
- G. Mercuriale (1588) first described what is know as pure alexia or alexia without agraphia. In age when scholars spoke Latin as well as their local language , the first cases of bilingual aphasia (aphasia affecting the use of two languages) were documented (Gesner,1770:see Benton,1981)
- C. Localization Of Function (Neurology In The Nineteenth And Twentieth Centuries)
- D. Functional Neuroanatomy and Neuropathology
- Neuroanatomical Structure Involved in Speech and Language
- How Speech Is Control by The Brain
- Neural Cells and Their Connections: The ultimate Basis of All Behavior
- What Can Go wrong With the Brain: Neuropathology
- E. Lateralization Of Function
- Putting one of half of the brain to sleep: the wada test
- Splitting apart the hemispheres: commissurotomy
- Taking out half the brain : hemispherectomy
- Listening with both ears: the dichotic listening technique
- What function reside in the nondominant hemisphere?
- When sign language users become aphasic?
- F. Intrahemispheric Localization of Function
- Measuring electrical activity in the brain.
- Measuring blood flow in the brain.
- The role of sub cortical structures in speech and language
TOPIC III
SPEECH PERCEPTION
- A. The Historical Roots of Speech Perception
- B. Major Questions In Speech Perception
- How do we identify and label phonetic segment.
The “Lack of Invariance” problem. It would be relatively easy to developed models of the speech perception process if each distinctive sound in a language was associated with a standard acoustic pattern.
- How is speech perceived under less than ideal conditions?
- The Speech Signal
- Place of articulation
- Manner of production
- Distinctive feature
- Acoustic properties of speech sounds
- Acoustics characteristic of consonant
- C. Perception of Phonetic Segment.
- The rule of speech synthesis in perceptual research.
- Ways in which speech perception is tested
- Perception of vowels
- Steady states versus formant transition in vowel identification: an illustrative study
- The unmodified original syllables, called control syllable.
- Silent-centre syllables
- Variable-centre syllables
- Fixed-centre stimuli were constructed by the trimming segment (b) in each syllable to match the duration of the shortest target vowel.
- Finally, listeners evaluated abutted syllables.
- Perception of consonant
- Phoneme identify is context dependent
- Voice-onset-time : an important acoustics cue.
- Categorical perception of voicing contras.
- Other categorical perception studies
- Categorical perception: specific to speech sound perception?
- Other applications of test paradigms used in categorical perception studies.
- D. Speech Perception Beyond A Single Segment
- The perceptual outcome of co articulation
- Perceptual effect of speaking rate
- Lexical and syntactic factors in word perception
- E. Models of speech perception
- Motor theory of speech perception
- Analysis-by-synthesis
- Fuzzy logical model
- Cohort model
- Trace model
- Fuzzy logical model
TOPIC IV
WORD AND MEANING:
FROM PRIMITIVES TO COMPLEX ORGANIZATION
- A. Word And Meaning : Separate But Linked Domain
- The translation argument, suggest that any given language includes some words that not depend meaning for their existence and some meanings for which there are not single word.
- Argument for a separation of words and meaning comes from the imperfect mapping illustration.
- Argument for treating word and meanings as separate comes from the elasticity demonstration, which illustrates that a word meaning can change in different contexts.
- B. The Study Of Word
- Word primitives
Evidence about word primitives:
- Each word (even multimorphemic) has its own lexical entry, know as a lexeme.
- Constituents morphemes are individually stored in the lexicon so that words are decomposed or composed.
- Factors influencing word access and organization
- Frequency
- Image ability and concreteness and abstractness
- Grammatical class
- Semantics
- Models of lexical access
- Serial search models
- Parallel access models, which are: Logogen model, Morton (1969,1979), Connectionist models, Cohort models.
- Separating words and meaning.
- C. Meaning.
- Philosophical theories of meaning
- Alternative theories : meaning is in the public domain
- Conceptual primitives
- Feature theories
- Variations of feature theories, as we shall is the classical view and the family resemble view.
- Knowledge-based approaches, let us briefly review each now: psychological essentialism is the position advocated by Medin (Medin & ortony, 1989; Murphy & Medin, 1985) and Psychological conceptualism refers to the idea that the certain contexts.
- Conceptual organization
- Models of semantic representation
- A special problem for the mental lexicon: lexical ambiguity. Although all meanings are activated in parallel: contexts, other factors, time course of activation, the time course of sentence contexts versus word pairs.
- The reciprocal and influential relationships of words and meaning
TOPIC V
SENTENCE PROCESSING
- A. Structural Properties Of Sentences
- Statistical approximation to English . you might as known that increasing the likelihood of words by increasing contextual constraints, either with the sentences or with sentences or with statistics approximation to English.
- Where do people pause when the speak?. Clearly, listener know a great deal about the structure of their narrative language.
- B. Syntactic Process
- Syntactic resolution is necessary for comprehension
- Surface structure versus deep structure
- Competence versus performance
- Syntactic structure of sentences
- C. Sentence Parsing And Syntactic Ambiguity.
Local ambiguity versus standing ambiguity. Syntactic ambiguity refers to cases where a clause or sentence may have more than one interpretation given than potential grammatical functions of the individual words.
- D. Models Of Sentence Parsing.
- Garden part models of sentence processing, the parser makes only one initial syntactic analysis of a word sequence.
- Constrain satisfaction model of sentence processing, models say that more than one syntactic analysis of a word sequence may be generated during comprehension.
- E. Meaning : The Goal Of Sentence Processing.
- F. Is Syntax Processed Separately From Meaning.
- G. The Role Of Prosody In Sentence Processing.
- H. On-Line Interactive Models of Sentence Processing.
- Shadowing and gating student.
- How on-line is gating?. The process we wish to understand, of course, is the real-time analysis of the speech input and the automated “core process” involved in language understanding.
- I. Where Does context Operate?
- J. Comprehension Of No literal Meaning.
- K. The Role Of Memory In Language Processing
- Speech perception and lexical identifications
- Syntactic parsing and retention of phrases
- Retention of semantic propositions
- L. A Processing model Of Sentence Comprehension
TOPIC VI
SENTENCE COMBINED: TEXT AND DISCOURSE
- A. Discourse And Text
- Cohesion, Is defined as semantic concept that ”refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text and that define it as a text.
- Propositional Models of the text processing. When people listen to or read a sentence, they remember its meaning, but typically they retain information about its grammatical form for only brief time unless the syntactic form its self meaningful.
- Inferences, are deductions or guesses based on evidence in the text or derived from a person’s preexisting knowladge.
- Remembering. Schemata in 1932, Bartlett published a book that eventually revolutionized the was psychologist thought about memory. such expectation are called schemata.
- B. Context
- Discourse as a context.
- Context and comprehension, remembering depends on understanding.
- Unwritten rules of discourse. Paul Grice (1075) articulated for unwritten rules for efficient speech, otherwise known as conversational maxims.
- Ambiguity. Discourse serves as a context, affecting sentence and word-level interpretation of what would on otherwise be ambiguous words phrases in certain direction.
- Metaphors, are in interesting form of discourse that has received attention in psychology for about 20 years, though most readers will have encountered discussion of them only in English classes.
- Irony, is another form of figurative language that illuminates the importance of context to meaning.
- Speech act, speakers use language for many purpose to inform, question, command, thank, apologize, congratulate, promise, offer, and marry people.
- Politeness. Means acting so as to take account of the feelings of others and includes both those actions concerned positive face and negative face.
- Individual factors affecting discourse
- Conversational style
- Genderlect
- Bilingual issues of discourse
- Bilingual issues of discourse. Dialect, Social class differences and Role
- Genres ( a literary form).
- Narrative . has received considerable attention.
- Expository/explanatory. The discourse that transmits such thinking.
- Humor. As with explanation and narrative, humor is conceptually distinct but in reality often overlaps with explanation and narrative.
TOPIC VII
SPEECH PRODUCTION
- A. Introduction.
- B. Sources Of Data For Models Of Speech Production
- Speech Errors. It is of course no simple matter to try to understand any aspect of the mental processes involved in speaking.
- Disfluencies. In addition to speech errors, many utterances are characterized by hesitations, repetition, false stars, and filler.
- C. Issues in speech production
- The units of speech production. When the produce an utterance corresponding to some though we wish to convey, we cannot go to a mental storage unit and pull out the appropriate stored message.
v Phonetic features
v The syllable
v Stress
- Word, morpheme, and phrase units in speech production
v Lexical search and Pausal phenomena.
v Morphemes and speech errors
v Grammatical rules
- The phrase as a planning unit
v Self-corrections and retracing
v Pausal phenomena
- How far ahead do we plan?. Syntactic phrase have hierarchical structure large phrase include smaller phrase. A sentence or clause may be composed of constituent clauses, which in turn are composed of various syntactic phrase.
- D. What Speech Errors Data Suggest About The Process Of Speech Production.
- Speech is planned in advance
- The lexicon is organized both semantically and phonologically.
- Morphologically complex words are assembled
- Affixes and functors behave differently from content words in slips of tongue
- Speech errors reflect rule knoeladge.
- E. Speech Production Processing Models
- The utterance generator model of speech production
v The message is mapped onto a syntactic structure
v Intonation contours (sentence and phrasal stress) are generated on the basis of the syntactic representations.
v Word are selected from the lexicon
v Phonological specification
v Generation of the motor commands for speech
- The garret model
- Level’s model
v The lexical level, or concept
v The lemma level
v The lexeme level
- Dell’s model. The concept of spreading activation was discussed. Dell’s spreading activation models of speech production.
TOPIC IX
LANGUAGE ACTION
- A. Research Methods In The Study Of Language Development
- Diaries and parental reports
- Observation
- Interviews
- Experimental Techniques. Various experimental techniques assess infant and child language knowledge.
- Child language data exchange system (CHILDES)
- Research design . The design of studies can be either cross-sectional or longitudinal.
- B. The Development Of Speech Perception
- Methods for studying speech perception in infants
- How speech perception developed
- Prenatal auditory exposer and learning
- Early speech perception
- Linguistic specialization.
- C. The Child’s Lexicon
- Before first words
- First words
- Comprehension lead production
- Characteristic of early vocabulary and their determinants
- .How do children determine what words means? Its doesn’t take long for a child to assign some form meaning to a new word.
- How to learn what words means: some possible strategies.
- How do children determine the part of speech of a novel word? The context in which children encounter new nouns are relatively favorable for making linkages between object and names.
- Some words are more difficult to learn than others. Not all words are equally easy for children to learn.
- Lexical organization and word association.
- D. Learning To Make And Understand Sentences.
- Assessing syntactic knowledge. We have already discussed methods that researches use to analyze children’s say in naturalistic setting.
- Methods for assessing syntactic understanding. Historical, researches have tasted children’s understanding of sentences by asking them to act sentence out using object.
- Moving from words to sentences. Which Early sentences and Early grammar.
- Learning to make sentences in English. Certainly, acquisition of morphological markers such as verbal inflection, articles, plurals, and so fort is necessary for the creation of well-formed sentences in English. Learning to say no, learning to ask questions.
- E. Learning To Communicate : Early Social Uses Of Language.
Learning to take perceptive: the demise of egocentrism. Is Young children sometimes show evidence of an ability to take perspective of their listener.
- F. Theories Of Child Language Acquisition.
- What must theories of language development account for? In reviewing the theories of language acquisition we present below, remember that each must account for some facts about child language development.
- General features of theories. Developmental psycholinguistics is filled with lively theoretical controversy about how best to account for language development.
- Major dimension of language development theories.
- Linguistics/innatist theory.
- G. Perspectives: What Do The Data Tells Us About The Theories?
- Nature or nature? Clearly, the answer to this question is a resounding “both”
- Biological bases.
- Biological, cognitive, and social interaction.
- Continuity or discontinuity
- Universal competence or individual variation
- Structure or functions
TOPIC X
A PSYOCHOLINGUSTIC ACCOUNT OF RAEDING
- A. A History Of Writing Systems.
- B. The Alphabet
- C. The Underlying Elements Of Reading
- Representational system in word identification, which are: phonological coding, semantic coding, syntactic/grammar coding, the visual system, and motor system.
- Cognitive processes involved in reading and all learning. Which are: attention, associative learning, cross-modal transfer, patterns analysis and rule learning, and serial memory.
- D. The Development Of Reading
- The protoliteracy period. A child’s attainment of reading ability is rooted in spoken language skill. which are: phonological skills, vocabulary knowledge, letter recognition and naming speed abilities.
- Stage of literacy. The actual stages of literacy acquisition are a matter of continuing discussion.
- E. Models Of Skilled Reading.
- Context-driven, “top-down” models
- Stimulus-driven ,”bottom-up” models
- Whole-word models
- Component-letter models
- Multilevel and parallel coding-system models, which are: Laberge and Samuel’s multilevel coding model, parallel coding-system models.
- Lexical-search models. Whereas- search models postulate the period words identified by passive and automatic activation of letter and word detector